一、何谓文房四宝?

　　笔、墨、纸、砚，称为文房四宝，是中国独有的书画工具。中国毛笔经过数千年的改良和制作经验积累，特别适合于在宣纸上绘画之用。中国的墨和砚，也是很独特的。墨是用松烟、或桐烟、漆烟，经过精密的程序制炼而成。砚是选用水成岩制造的。

　　二、学习花鸟画，应选购那几种画笔?

　　画笔有用软毛或硬毛制造的，各厂家所制画笔的名称不一，有大、中、小各种号码不同。软毫以羊毫为主，有卞列各类：

　　1.羊毫提笔(亦称斗笔)。

　　2.大、中、小白云(这种羊毫笔兼有硬毫，笔锋较纯羊毫笔为刚劲)。

　　3：大、中，小染笔，大、中、小点苔，大、中、小着色(这些画笔都是羊毫制，普通大小楷羊毫笔也可代用)。

　　4.大、中，小白圭•笔(描线用)。

　　5.各种大，小排笔(作烘染用)。

　　硬毫以狼毫为主，亦有用狸毫、紫毫(兔毛)做的，有下列;各种：

　　1，狼毫提笔(亦称斗笔)。

　　2.大、中、小兰竹笔。

　　3.大、中、小书画笔。

　　4.翎毛画笔。

　　5.点梅、叶筋、狼圭，红豆、红毛(均作描线用)。

　　初学者可先购大、小羊毫笔两三枝，作渲染用。兰竹笔一枝，书画或翎毛画笔一两枝，叶筋笔一枝，红毛或红豆笔一枝便可敷应用。清代画家迮朗在“绘事微言”中有一段话，可供选笔之参考：“钩勒用硬笔，着色用软笔，工捆用新笔，写意用退笔。界画用硬笔，渲染用软笔，钩勒用硬尖笔，点苔用硬退笔，浚墨用大软笔，淡色用软退笔。”上述所谓退笔，就是在各种画笔用秃后，不可丢弃，存储起来备用之谓。俗语说，“画家无弃笔。”学画者在实习的过程中，渐渐会领略到各种笔的性能，那时就可知道自己应添购的什么笔了。画笔用后要把笔洗净。特别是硬尖钩勒用的笔，被墨胶凝固不能用，再泡开就会损耗它的锋芒，而且把笔尖弄歪了，就很难再矫正。着色羊毫笔也忌胶固。笔的存放，宜挂起或插在笔筒里。

　　三、我们作画时，应怎样孰笔?

　　作画时，执笔以五指环住笔杆，使笔杆稳固而又可转动。作稍大的画时，腕部肘部要悬空，称为“悬腕”和“悬肘”。

　　四，试述国画运笔的方法。

　　国画的运笔，可分为下列三项解说：(1)运笔的起落，(2)笔锋的正侧，(3)钧勒、点簇、与皴擦。

　　(1)运笔的起落  国画最重“笔墨”。用笔划出各种不同性质的线条，用墨画出各种不同程度的浓淡调子。我们用笔划一条才，开始时，叫做“落笔”，就是把笔落到纸上的意思。一条线条的结尾，叫做“起笔，就是把笔拿起，离开纸上。运笔时，由落笔至起笔，由于所表现各种物象之不同，而运用各种不同性质的线条。我们可以把笔锋流利地顺笔划下去，如行云流水，也可以有提、按，顿挫的变化，如盘根错折。运笔时把笔“提”得起一些，笔道的才条就轻细，“按”下去一些，笔道的才条就粗重。运笔时中间停一下，或重单击，或旋折一下，叫做顿挫。不论提、按，有时笔道上起了松散或曳隙，叫做“沙笔”，也是用笔变化的一种，一般都从墨少而运笔快速而来，在绘画时为表现某些物质的特色，也会特别以“沙笔”描写的。

　　(2)笔锋的正侧  我们运笔的时候，用垂直的笔的锋尖来写画，叫做“中锋”。中锋的笔法是保持笔杆的垂直，笔的锋尖都在才与点的中央部份，用中锋画出来的点、才，比较有饱满圆厚的感觉。“侧锋”又名“偏锋”。执笔时笔杆带斜，笔在纸上移动时，笔尖偏在线或点的一边。平涂及皴擦时多用侧锋。用侧锋所画出来的线和默比较峭利而姿媚。作画时，中锋与侧锋并用，以表现各种物体的形状和性质。

　　(3)钩勒、’点簇、皴擦  “钩勒”是指用一种尖细的画笔，以瘦劲的线条钩出物体的轮廓和细部，并根据物象的厚薄，明暗、刚柔、毛滑而分别运用粗细、顿挫的笔触，这种画法很有优美的感觉。在工笔花鸟画里，钩又可与勒分别开来。.钩是指未着色前钩出的轮廓，勒是指着色之后，再用比较重的色或墨，重复的勒出的各种形象的线，这才不单代表轮廓，还要表达出物体的质感，使各种花乌更生动明快。“点簇”与钩勒是两种不同的方法。点簇是没骨画法。钩勒是用缤条钩出物象的轮廓和纹路点簇是用墨点来点出物象的面积和阴阳向背等。钩勒的用笔是不大分浓淡的，点簇则要分别浓淡。以笔醮清水，再将笔弄得半干，然后以笔尖醮墨，点在纸上，这墨点即有浓谈之分了。用点簇之法时，也可以把点拉长一些，或扭动一下，有些顿挫，以适合表现各种物象的性质。“鲗擦”是用较干的笔、用侧锋写出的一种笔触乙：皴擦主要是用来表现出粗糙不规则的物象面少例如山石和老树等，可以随物象的大体明暗而分疏密浓淡。皴是一种疏密有致的丛线，要并排而又不平行，要参差而又大致上统一。我国传统上画家的皴法很多，如“披麻皴”，“斧劈皴”等，依各种物象的需要而应用。擦比皴用笔更干更毛，有些不像线了，有时加在皴上，轻轻用;在物象的表面上，以增加一定的质感。

　　总的来说，中国绘画的笔法与书法是相通的。因此研究书法，也大大助长了画法。元赵孟俯说：“石如飞白木如榴，写竹还应八法通，若也有人能合此，须知书画本来同。”

　　五、墨有那几种

　　墨以质地幼细的为上，有松烟、油烟、漆烟三种之分。烟炱是墨的主要原料，用松木、桐油、败漆放在窑裹烧成烟炱，加轻胶及一些药物制成，因此而有各种名称的墨。墨色尘久不变，是中国画的特色。松烟墨的色调是极黝黑的，墨色干了之后，墨的痕迹上面有些绒质的感觉。若用水调和成淡墨时，则平板灰暗，缺少浓淡层次的变化，因此宜于用浓，不宜用淡，作花鸟画时适宜于画一些黑色的虫鸟。油烟墨研磨之后，与水调合，富有浓淡层次的变化，用来作画，最为适合。漆烟墨具有很好的光泽，宜作鸟类点睛之用。我们买墨时，在墨块的上一头，有些是写明“松烟”、“桐烟”、“漆烟”的，还有些写明“顶烟”、“上烟”，是指上好的醇烟，“贡烟”是说以前是进贡皇帝用的。

　　六、怎样用墨?

　　画家作画有“古墨新磨”之说。古墨就是旧墨的意思。选用三、五十年的旧墨，胶贸褪到恰可的地步，但是不宜用年代太远的旧墨，有的是胶力失效，有的是受了潮湿，已泛出灰白的粉霜。新磨就是说用墨须用新磨的墨，才有鲜润的色泽。用墨的时候，必须将笔醮墨在调色碟裹调合适度，认为浓淡得宜，才好写画。

　　用墨得法，可使墨和水化成浓淡不一的调子，以表达出物象上各种浓淡的色彩来。古人有“墨分五色”之说，即墨色的浓淡，约可分为“焦、浓、重、淡、清。五种墨彩。焦墨是磨得极浓的墨，最好留在墨池内经过半天的挥发，用来画最黝黑的部份。这样的墨色将极浓黑而有光亮。画面有局部地方有些焦墨，可使整个画面有精神。焦墨加入一些水份，成为浓墨，重墨比浓墨加入更多些水份，淡墨则水份更多，成为淡灰的色泽。清墨则祗像一层轻淡的影子而已。

　　用墨可分为(1)用墨的层次，(2)墨的性质，两方面来讨论：(1)用墨的层次，可分为平涂、擂墨、积墨、破墨等加以说明。“平涂”是用大笔蘸上浓度适宜的墨水，大胆而又小心地涂落纸上，是用大笔先蘸淡墨和水，再用笔尖蘸上焦墨或浓墨，落笔在纸上，有顿挫转折等，以写叶、石、泥土等。“积墨”是用浓淡得宜的水墨连敷数次，使墨色深厚而又有浓淡的层次。单用淡墨连染数次的也叫做擀。“破墨”就是先用淡墨或清墨涂上，趁湿润时以焦墨或浓墨加上，化出融和的变化。

　　(2)墨的性质 用墨有干、湿之分。用干墨画出来的笔触，称为“燥笔”。用湿墨画出来的笔触，称为“润笔。和“滋笔”。所谓干墨，就是把笔锋吸得干些，蘸墨又少，画出沙笔的状态，这种墨法称为干墨，这种笔触称为燥笔。如果笔锋含墨水多些，称为湿墨，画出来的笔触称为润笔。用更多的水墨画出来的笔触，在纸面上渗化得毛茸茸的，称为滋笔。用滋笔连续描写，水墨用去不少，又可成为润笔以至燥笔了。这种干湿的变化，可因物象的需要而运用。

　　七、试述砚和墨的关系。

　　砚以石制，古代砚亦有以陶制者。砚石以石质细润者为上品。石质细磨墨快，石质润则可使墨汁保存较久。砚石以广东肇庆出产的。端砚”和安徽歙县出产的。歙砚。为最佳。选购砚时，为了绘画的便利，第一要求墨池较深，第二要有盖可以保持清洁。砚的大小以五寸到八寸左右为佳，用的时候较为方便，方的圆的不拘。砚石用后应随时洗净盖好，以免留有宿墨或落入尘埃。砚台裹有隔天的墨渣，即所谓“宿墨”，没有洗干净再磨，就会令墨色灰暗，用来作画时不容易有层次的变化;色调板滞，影响绘画效果。在砚台上磨墨的方法，是先注水数滴，磨了数下，再注水数滴，如是者且磨且注水，磨至认为足用的份量，以墨色浓黑为度。

　　八、试述国画用纸的种类。

　　花鸟画可以绘在纸或绢上。我们作国画常用的纸主要是宣纸。宣纸种类很多，纸面尺码大小不一，有丈二，八尺，六尺，五尺、四尺等之分。宣纸又因其纸质厚薄而有棉连，夹连、单宣、夹宣，三层宣等分别，通称为生纸。生纸的特性是水墨着纸即有印晕，宜作写意画，淋漓尽致，能发挥水墨画的特色。生纸经过胶矾加工.的叫做熟纸，如矾单宣、矾夹宣等，又有称为蝉衣，云母，冰雪、玉蝶，冷金和染色仿古的清水书画笺等，都不很吸水，此外还有硾、玉版等半熟宣，有经豆腐浆渗过的半生熟画纸“豆腐宣”，均可作绘画之用，各有适宜的用途。日本和朝鲜也产出水墨画用纸，性质各有不同。我们可以随意选用。

　　花鸟画可画在绫或娟上。绫和娟都是丝织，绫可作绘写意画之用，娟是经过胶矾加工的，可做工笔花鸟画用。

　　九、学习花鸟昼应选购些甚么颜料?

　　中国画的颜料，是用锯物、植物和矿植混合物、化合物等制造而成的，种类繁多。唐以前已经非常丰富，唐以后更加发展。现在将一般应用的十余种颜料，分别胪列于后，这些颜料都制成膏状或粉状，备画家应用。从植物中提链出来的颜色，称为“草色”，从矿物提链出来的颜色，称为“石色”。“草色”如花青、藤黄、胭脂等是，“石色”如赭石、朱砂、朱标、石黄、石青、石绿，铅粉等是。此外还有一种常用的红色叫西洋红，在明代以后从西洋输入中国，一直在中国花鸟画中应用。近代又有化合物制成的钛粉，以代铅粉。

　　花青、赭石;朱标、西洋红、胭脂，都有制好的块状的色膏，开，便可应用。

　　藤黄是—•种植物胶，凝固成条状，用水化开即可用。购回来放在调色碟里用水化。

　　朱砂，石青、石绿、铅粉、鈇粉等都是粉质，用时在乳钵内加以研磨，然后加轻胶水细研使用。石青和石绿，又有头、二、三，四之别，头青、头绿色深质粗，不宜多用。

　　图画用具和颜料，现在有些文具公司和绘画用品公司加以研究改良。在用具方面，制成各种便于应用的欺式，在颜料方面，也有盒装和锡管装等制成品，应用起来很是便利。

　　此外在画具方面，还应设备水盂、笔洗、调色碟等，于作画时应用。进行作画时先以棉毡或吸水纸铺在桌面上，然后放上画纸，好让落笔后的多余水份被吸收了去。

　　十、试述着色的方法。

　　图画着色的方法，可分两方面来说：(1)颜色的涂法，(2)颜色混合法。

　　(1)颜色的涂法，有“平涂”、“烘”、“染”、“刷”等之分。“平涂”是说在物体的轮廓之内以颜色平涂。钩蓬画法在涂色时，也根据明暗而施浓淡，亦可作点垛。“烘”是在大面积上着色的一种方法。例如画天，水等大块面积，先以大笔蘸清水拖湿要烘的部份，用另纸盖在上面吸去多余水份，然后用颜色根据浓淡的需要轻轻涂上去。需要时可用另一枝笔将颜色化开。“染”是用颜色一层层加染上去之谓。先在适当的地方平涂淡色，等干后再在需要加浓的地方，加染一层，可用另一枝笔接着用水润开，再不够色时，等干后再加染。“刷”是用笔蘸色，水份要少，用侧锋如刷擦上，按颜色的深浅需要而落笔轻重不同，有时着力些，有时轻些。描写乌类的羽毛等最用得着。

　　(2)颜色混合法，在花乌画的色彩表现上，是重要的知识。中国画的颜色可分为单色、间色、复色三种。我们从文具店购回来的颜色，称为“单色”，虽然有多种，但是无论如何是不足以描写自然界丰富的色彩的。我们因此必要把颜色混合起来，以产生另外许多色调。颜色混合法有二：即调色法和复色法。

　　调色法就是把两种或三种颜色在调色碟中调合起来，或用颜色和墨调配起来，各种色的份量因需要而异，这样一来，颜色就多了。

　　复色法就是以几种色画在一起，在画纸上发生自然的混合，或以几种先后落笔，或同时蘸在笔上，一次落笔。

　　无论用调色法或复色法，用色时可加上些类似色，能使色调秀美而丰富，例如用黄色时渗入一些赭石，用花青时带一些墨，用朱标带一些胭脂渗入，作调合或自然混合。又如画花办分浓淡，可先用笔蘸上白色，再在笔尖上蘸些红色或其他颜色，一笔下去，分出浓淡，色彩就很鲜艳。

　　十一，试述学习花鸟画的程序。

　　学习花鸟画的程序，可分为临摹、写生，创作三个程序。临摹与写生，可以同时并进，作为日后创作的基础。

　　临摹是学习绘画传统技法的一种方法。“临”是按照现成绘画的用笔用墨和章法，依样画下来。“摹”是用极薄而透明的纸印在画上，描摹它的笔迹，钩勒它的轮廓。在临摹之前，必须认真看画，对于原本的布局和用笔用墨，经过一番细致的观察，再落笔来临摹，使与原本形神相似。

　　写生是对我们眼前的事物作直接的描写。在写生练习阶段时，要忠实于客观对象，但仍需要艺术上的加工，把不重要的删掉，把主要的突出。

　　创作是根据主题，由自己构图而成的一幅画。要表现出这个主题，就要有一定的临摹和写生的基础。创作必须“胸有成竹”然后才可以落笔。经过“经营位置”，考虑到用笔用墨的处理然后下笔。不过这是一个大概的布置，在具体下笔时，有时会发现原来不曾有的新意思，随时添补下

　　十二、试述国画写生的方法。

　　中国历代的花鸟画家都注重写生。我们平时进行速写，宜携备简单的工具，例如一个拍纸簿、速写簿等。速写时，可用铅笔1B、2B，或墨水笔，敷色可用水彩，或径用文字注明色彩，回家后根据注释敷色。现在分花卉、梅兰竹菊、雀鸟，鱼虫等写生方法，加以说明。

　　(1)花卉  各种花卉，都各有它的特征，我们必细心观察花的形态、花办生长的顺序，其次及于蓓蕾、含苞、盛开、凋谢等各种形态，叶的轮生、对生，枝干的草本、木本等，花朵必有阴阳向背，多采多姿。写生开始，由花朵的中心落笔，后添花办，乃至将全朵花形成。补枝叶，画叶先画主筋，次画叶边，然后按照叶形、正、反、斜、侧之态画下，叶有远近，分前、中、后各不同位置。写生花卉，最好照原形大小相若，或稍缩小，或有大型的花卉，则宜写折枝。

　　(2)梅兰竹菊  初学画者最宜熟练梅兰竹菊的画法。画梅足以明枝梗之作法，画兰为画芦、苇，蒲、萱之一助，画竹得以知笔法之变化，因其与书法相通，而画菊又为画一切花叶之基础。画梅先画干，老干盘曲，嫩枝坚挺，各尽其致，然后添花。画兰亦先画叶，后添花。叶细长，交搭者成凤眼，宜注意其飘逸之态。画竹宜注意其叶的结构，有个字，介字等。菊花;的种类甚多，花办形状各种不同，繁，简有异，最宜注意。

　　(3)雀鸟  鸟类写生，要细心观察，深明鸟的结构和动态等，才好下笔乙鸟的头与身，是大小两个卵形所构成。在大卵形(身)的上端放置一卵形(头)，则鸟头向上。若将小卵形放在大卵形之下，则鸟头向下。位置变化，即成各种姿态。然后可在适当地方，画上嘴、翅，脚。鸟类的写生，可分郊野，动物园、标本三方面进行。鸟类动作敏捷，飞行迅速，姿态瞬息万变，在郊野及动物园中，仅凭记忆及默写。雀笼中的小鸟和标本，则可作较详尽的观察和描写。标本写牛，对花鸟画的知识，帮助很大。

　　(4)鱼虫  鱼类写生，可在池塘、沼泽、大海中描写，凭记忆默写出来。在水族馆和家庭水族箱中所见较清晰，可作较详尽的描写。写鱼类要注重特征。画法顺序，先画头，然后画背，腹，加画鳍及鳞，尾等。鱼的颜色丰富而多变化，着色时要一笔蘸色，另一笔蘸清水，用清水化开颜色，才有变化。画草虫，要多从田园花圃中观察，飞行栖息的姿态各有不同，一般都有四翅六足，善于跳跃者后肢特别健壮，善于飞行者前翅特别长大。作精细写生，则要求诸标本。蚱蜢从头、背、翅、腹、脚、触须顺序画下，最后加翅。蝴蝶先画前翅、后翅而添画头、背、腹、脚、触须，最后刻划捆部及翅上的脉纹。画蝶蝴，要色泽美丽及富有质感，本书作者实验的结果，宜采用特技加工。其法以黑海虎绒烧成粉末，用乳砵研磨，略加薄胶水，成糊状，用时将浓墨加入，涂上翅膀黑色的部份，待干，色彩浓黑、艳丽而有毛质。表现草虫的毛质，最宜用此法。

　　TECHNIQUE OF FLOWER-AND-BIRD PAINTING

　　STUDIO EQUIPMENTS

　　Brush，ink-stick，paper，and inkstone are called “four valuables in the studio.” They are necessary for flower-and-bird painting. Chinese painting colours are water colours.Though painters may choose to use their own favourite colours，a suggested list is indued in this article.

　　(1) BRUSH

　　There are two kinds of brushes，one being softer than the other. The soft-hair

　　brushes are mainly made of white sheep-hairs，and the others are of brown-coloured wolf hairs.

　　(i) Sheep-hair brushes:

　　“Tih” brush (a very large brush made of hairs even longer than two inches).

　　“Pal-yun” brush (a sheep-hair brush mixed with some other harder hairs，available in three sizes: large，medium，and small).

　　Brushes for washes，for dots，and for tints (all these three

　　three sizes: large，medium and small)

　　“Pai-kwei” brush (a brush for line drawing)

　　Joint brush (a few brushes joint up for washes in bigger areas)

　　(ii)Wolf-hair brushes:

　　“Tih” brush (in very large size)

　　Orchid-and-bamboo brush

　　Calligraphy-and-painting brush

　　Bird-painting brush (all the last three kinds of brushes available in various sizes)

　　Brush for plum-dots，brush for leaf-veins，“Kwei” brush，red-bean brush，and red-feather brush (all for line-drawing)

　　Other hard-hair brushes may be made of fox-hair or rabbit-hair.

　　Students of flower-and-bird painting are advised to take a selection as follows:

　　(1) two or three sheep-hair brushes in various sizes for washes and tints，(2) one orchid-and-bamboo brush，(3) one or two bird-painting brushes  or calligraphy-andpainting brushes，(4) one leaf-vein brush，(5) one red-bean or red-feather brush. An old brush with a blunt point must not be thrown away. It is kept for some special uses. Chao Lang，a painter of the Ching Dynasty，says，“Use hard-hair brushes for line-drawing，soft-hair brushes for tinting，new brushes for elaborate works，old brushes for impressionistic works，hard-hair brushes for mechanical lines，soft-hair brushes for washes，hard-hair brushes with sharp points

　　for leafTveins，old hard-hair brushes with blunt points for dots，big soft-hair brushes for diluted-ink washes，and old soft-hair brushes for thinly coloured shades.”

　　All brushes are to be cleansed after use.  Stand the brushes in a vase or a brush-stand.

　　(2) INK-STICK

　　There are three kinds of ink-sticks. One is made of tung-oil soot，the second of resin soot，while the third of lacquer soot. Those made of tung-oil soot are the most appropriate. Black and rich in lustre，they can be graded into different shades in use. The resin soot ones are jet black，but they are not ideal for painting，because of their want of lustre，except for some special cases in delineating black fowls and beetles. Lacquer-soot ink sticks are most lustrous，and suitable for depicting the pupil of the eye. Painters prefer old ink sticks made some fifty years ago，when the glue content has become thinner with age，but new ink sticks made of finely pulverized soot and right glue content are also good for painting purpose. (3) PAPER

　　Chinese painting may be done either on paper or silk. Ordinarily those sorts generally called “rice paper” may be used for Chinese painting. Traditionally the most-commonly used is called “Hsuan” paper，the best of which is made of sandalwood bark.Students may try various kinds of paper and see their effects. A paper is good if it is firm，solid，unblemished and hospitable to ink. The best advice is to know the character of the paper first before doing a painting.

　　Chinese painting paper is absorbent，on which the ink diffuses as the brushstroke is laid. When the paper is alum-sized it becomes non-absorbent，and it is advisable to use this sized paper for painting in the elaborate style，Alum-sized paper of various kinds is also available in the market.

　　Artists paint on silk at times. The thin “Ling” silk has been in use for painting in the free-hand style. Chinese pongee lends itself very well to painting，but it must be treated with alum and glue before use. Ready-made alum-sized Chinese pongee is available in most artists' materials companies.

　　(4) INKSTONE

　　The best inkstone for Chinese painting is produced in Shiao-hing County of Kwangtung Province and in Iisi County of Anhwei Province. The texture of the stone is so fine that it is most hospitable to the ink stick. To prepare ink for painting，put a small spoonful of water on the ink is sufficiently dark and sticky，then add another small spoonful of water and rub again，and so on.

　　After each painting session，wash out the inkstone. Mix fresh ink each time. Remixed ink is not so beautiful，and is also bad for brushes.

　　Other equipments include a water dish with a small spoon for dipping water onto 'mkstone or colour dishes，a water tumbler for washing brushes，and ten or more little saucers for mixing colours. An absorbent cotton blanket or paper is laid on the table，beneath the paper to absorb the water that may go through the paper during the process of painting.

　　(5)  COLOURS

　　Chinese water colos may be used alone or mixed up with ink. Generally they are used for washes and tinting purposes after fink has first been applied in the painting. There are two kinds of colours，the one made from plants and the other from minerals. Indigo，gamboge，and saf-flower red belong to the first kind，and red ochre，vermillion，orpiment，azurite，malachite green，and flakewhite belong to the other. Crimson lake has also been introduced into Chinese painting.

　　The following colours are available in small pastebo-ard boxes in solid pieces: Indigo

　　Red ochre

　　Vermilion scum

　　Crimson lake

　　Saf-flower red

　　Gamboge

　　Powdered colours are kept in little Packets.The following is a selected list:

　　Vermillion

　　Azurite

　　Malachite green

　　Flake white (or titanium white)

　　Azurite and malachite green are available different shades，from light deep. Small mortars and pestles are necssary for grinding powdered colours，one set for each colour or shade. During the process of grinding a little water with mucilage is added to it，so that when painting a picture the colours will stick to the paper.          Colourmen have tried to improve Chinese painting colours. Recently Chinese colours in tin-boxes dr in tubes have been made and available in the market.

　　THE CHINESE BRUSH TECHNIQUE

　　(1)  THE WAY TO HOLD THE BRUSH

　　The Chinese hold a brush almost perpendicular to the paper for Writing characters and for much of their painting. The right way to hold the brush is to put the thumb on the left of it，and the index and middle fingers on the right. The brush is then supported by the ring finger，with the little finger pressed against the ring finger. In doing a large painting the wrist and the elbow are raised above the paper，while doing a small painting one may rest the wrist lightly on the table. It is the best piece of advice，however，when manipulating the brush do not only move the fingers，but the whole arm. This gives more vitality to the brushstrokes.

　　(2) THE WAY TO APPLY THE BRUSHSTROKE

　　There are different ways to apply the brushstroke. To create textural beauty，one must handle the brush cleverly，employing the central brush-point or the brush-side as. cases require. The manipulation of the Chinese brush is discussed as follows.

　　a. Putting down，closing up，lifting，pressing and breaking: Putting down the brushstroke on the paper requires technique as Well as closing up. The painter directs his brush to draw a line at his' discretion from left to right，from top to bottom，or vice versa. He may drag the brush-tip to go ahead like pulling a string or push it forward like moving a stone. Different ways of using .the brush call for different qualities of the brushtroke，e.g.，lightness，heaviness，fullness，tenacity，ruggedness，and gracefulness，to name only a few. In applying half-lift the brush with only the tip touching the paper to make a swift and thin line. He may，as .the .nature of the subject requires，press the tip of the brush on the paper to makes thick，heavy line. In some other cases he stops a. moment and chages the direction of the line，to make a break in. the brush-stroke. A line，therefore，may look Smooth or rugged，or may even leave out some blank spaces in it，deliberately made by not dipping enough ink in the brush-tip. Various brushstrokes suggest different textures of the subjects. Students of Chinese painting must learn to observe the various qualities of the brushstroke.

　　b. The brush-point and the brush-side techniques: The central brush-point is the core of the brush made of longer hairs than those on its periphery. To employ the central brush-point properly one must hold the brush sturdy and erect，with the core always at the centre of the brushtroke. It is generally used for defining outline or executing dots and flips. The brush-side is employed when the handle of the brush slants on one side and the brush-point lies on the brim of the brush-stroke. Use the brush-side technique for wrinkling，daubing，and washing. The core and the side of the brush，however，are jointly used in most cases to express the nature and form of various subjects.

　　c. Wrinkling and rubbing: The brush-side is employed when doing wrinkling and rubbing. Both are done with “thirsty brush and charred ink”. The technique of wrinkling and rubbing is of primary importance in painting rocks andold trees. Wrinkling strokes should not be parallel，but always slightly: overlapping. There are many different styles of wrinkling，each hag，lng a special name given to it by the ancient masters，e.g.，the hemp-fibre wrinkles，the hammer-cutting，wrinkies and etc. Rubbing is applied to a picture when wrinkling is Clone and found not satisfactorily expressive.  The way to do it is to dry the brush first，and place it sidewise in very thick black ink. Press the brush on absorbent scrap paper to take out all excess moisture. Now “rub” the brush'side slightly over the parts that one may wish to bring out darker，

　　THE TECHNIQUE OF APPLYING INK

　　The best kind of ink-stick produces a permanent black that stands the test of time. Ink，when diluted with water，can be graded into many different shades.The ancients say，“There ave five shades of ink.” Here the five shades refer to charred，deep，dark，light，and pale ink-black，Of course there may be still many tonal variations in each shade.

　　Charred ink is very very black and thick like cream，To prepare stir the ink-stick in water on the inkstone until the ink ceases to run together. The best kind of charred ink is let to stand on the inkstone for some time so part of the water in it may evaporate away. This kind of charred ink，when suitably applied to a painting，is very black and brilliant. When a little water is added it becomes deep-black ink. As more and more water is added it tums dark-black and light-black till it is very pale，when only the slightest shadow of ink colour prevails.

　　(1)  LAYERS OF INK

　　For single layer of ink apply quick strokes on Hsuan paper. Use a clean saucer with some water. Stir your ink brush in it. Stir until the wash is entirely smooth. Add a little ink or water as necessary to make the right ink colour. Apply it to a fixed area in the painting. Each application may differ in shade if it is required. Use quick strokes so that that the wash will not spread too much on the Hsuan paper. If some wash does spread beyond the outline，it does not matter much. Try a few times and you will become more adept as you go along.

　　To cover an area in the painting with deep black ink differs in texture and colour from over-painting with a few layers of light ink washes. Layers of ink suggest more subtle tonal gradations. Sometimes，charred ink may be applied on light washes. Light ink washes are first applied on the paper and when it is stiI1 wet put down charred ink or deep black brushstrokes to let one colour merge into the other. Then the painting! will look rich in moisture.

　　(2)  INK TEXTURES

　　Ink，when duly applied to Hsuan paper，may look sear，soggy or wet by dextrously controlling the water content in the brush. Soak the brush with water，lick the brim of the water tumbler to let surplus water run away. Try the brush on a scrap of absorbent paper which willagain blot off excess moisture in the brush tip. Make the brush very dry if you want to do a sear stroke，more water is added to do a soggy stroke and ample water for a wet stroke.

　　THE TECHNIQUE OF COLOUR MIXING AND APPLYING

　　(1)  COLOUR MIXING

　　Two or three colours can be mixed together to produce another tint. It is a common knowledge that gamboge and indigo make green，crimson lake and indigo make deep green.

　　To mix colours，stir well two or three colours in a saucer with water. In many eases it is more desirable to let two or three colours blend naturally on the paper.It is also a common practice in Chinese painting，however，to achieve well blended colours in one single stroke by soaking different colours in succession with the brush. First soak the brush with one colour and then with another. For example，soak the brush with diluted gamboge first and then dip the brush into red ochre，first with indigo and then with ink，or first with vermillion and then with saf-flower red. To paint a petal in this method，the brush is first soaked with white and then dip the tip of the brush into crimson lake or other colour. The colours so painted will look fresh and delightful.

　　(2) APPLICATION OF COLOURS

　　For colour washes mix up colour with water in the saucer and stir with the brush. Colour or water may be added to attain the right shade.  One application may differ from the other in colour and shade according to the subject one is to paint.

　　There are different ways of applying layers of colours on Hsuan paper. First let us try on a wet underpainting. Wet the paper first with water. In most cases this is done in bigger areas such as water and sky. Absorb excess moisture from the painting paper with another piece of absorbent paper. Apply colour on the wet-underpainting. Use another clean brush to smooth the painting strokes if required.

　　A picture can be painted with a few layers of colour. Second layer of colour may be applied to a colour-underpainting which is dry. Still another layer may be added if you see fit. Wonderful colour effects may be attained in this way.

　　Rubbing is done with a dry brush using the brush-side used for description of feathers.

　　STEPS OF LEARNING CHINESE PAINTING

　　This book provides fundamental lessons for every art student and model works for him to copy. A student of Chinese painting must first get acquainted with the Chinese brush，which as a rule is loaded with ink on rice paper. To paint in the traditional Chinese style he has to copy the works done by the masters of painting. During the process of copying he learns how he should manipulate his tools，and what the brush and Hsuan paper can do for him. Life study of flowers and birds，of course，is very helpful. Through a close observation he can acquire a knowledge of the growth of them，and memorize their various forms and manners. To paint from memory is also very important in Chinese painting，because in this way he can better express his own idea of nature and develop his personal style of painting. Finally he can try to do compositional works，as the latter part of this book will show him.

作者：蔡公衡